Copyright © 1998 Province of British Columbia
Published by the Resources Inventory Committee
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Wildlife radio-telemetry may be defined as the transmission of information from a transmitter on a free-ranging wild animal to a receiver. Wildlife-related telemetry is also known as radio tagging, radio-tracking or simply `tagging' or `tracking'. Advances in the field of wildlife telemetry have made it possible to acquire detailed data on many aspects of wildlife biology, including habitat use, home range size, mortality and survivorship, and migration timing and routes. Since many wildlife species are secretive and difficult to observe, radio-telemetry has provided a valuable tool to learn more about their respective life-histories. As a result, radio-telemetry studies are very common throughout the current wildlife literature (see Bibliography).
Despite its popularity, radio-telemetry is inappropriate under many circumstances. It is an expensive and time-consuming technique which has proven to be unsuitable for use in some species (due to the animal's size or life-history traits). Despite the frequency with which radio collars and other transmitters are attached to research animals, surprisingly little is known about their effects on the behaviour and survivorship of the species in question. Certain First Nations groups strongly believe that collars and even ear tags influence behaviour and therefore actively oppose the use of these devices on game animals. The potential for modified behaviour and differential survival of radio tagged animals may introduce additional bias and error which could be reflected in study results. Quite clearly it can also be detrimental to the animal wearing the tag. The placement of a radio tag on an animal represents a commitment by the researcher, and there is the possibility that it is done at the expense of the animal it is placed on. Thus, transmitters should only be attached when project funding guarantees the ability to monitor a tagged animal for the life-span of the transmitter.
Given these realities, this manual is intended to provide biologists with some guidance for using the technique of wildlife telemetry in British Columbia. It is not intended to be used as a comprehensive `how-to' manual covering all of the wildlife species in the province, but rather as a general guide covering basic telemetry equipment, principles of the technique and experimental design, while providing some general recommendations for the major species groups. It is the philosophy of the authors that a successful telemetry study is one that adheres to the principles of experimental design in conjunction with a thorough literary review, discussion with other biologists and telemetry suppliers, and a strong familiarity with the focal species. No manual can take the place of thorough preparation and users are encouraged to utilize all the resources at their disposal in order to obtain more specific information.
This manual is organized into 7 major sections which reflect the normal scope of decisions required to plan and initiate a radio-telemetry study.
1. In the first section, discussion focuses on considerations relating to the licensing required to initiate a telemetry study and the humane treatment of study animals.
2. The second and third sections deal with radio transmission. Fundamental information is presented about the mechanics of radio transmitters, and protocols and key considerations are provided to ensure their safe attachment.
3. The fourth and fifth sections focus on signal reception. Information is presented about options for receivers and antennas, as well, as recommendations for successful relocation.
4. In the sixth section, the design of radio-telemetry studies is discussed in relation to specific objectives. General considerations are presented as are more specific ones for five common objectives (habitat use, home range, movement pattern, and demographic studies).
5. Finally, the seventh section provides examples from representative species groups to illustrate equipment and methods used by other researchers as well as the results obtained. These examples should not be confused with recommendations.
It is recommended that experienced researchers be consulted for advice, particularly for first time studies in new areas or with unfamiliar equipment. Many important technical problems which can be critical to a telemetry project are often not recorded in the literature. Consultation with knowledgeable peers and other experts should be a standard procedure, particularly if the use of new or "unproven" technologies is proposed. The Internet provides several interlinked telemetry user contacts. An extensive list of product manufacturers, Internet addresses and published reports is provided in sections 9 and 10 to facilitate networking and contacts.
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In British Columbia, it is strongly recommended that all studies involving radio-telemetry of terrestrial wildlife undergo peer and veterinary review prior to commencement. This review should include examination of inventory objectives and methods, evaluation of expected ecological impacts, and provision of permits by the proponent (e.g., telemetry amendment to banding permit). In addition, experienced reviewers can provide valuable guidance regarding transmitter weight, attachment method and capture protocol, helping to avoid problems which have already been solved by other professionals. Because of the invasive nature of telemetry projects, researchers should be particularly diligent that proper field procedures are followed. Apart from the obvious humane considerations, animals which are unduly stressed or influenced by the capture technique and/or radio tag will not be representative of normal behaviour for the species. In extreme cases, injury and mortality may be the end result.
Researchers planning a radio-telemetry study should strive to ensure that study animals are affected as little as possible by the transmitter, and are handled humanely and effectively during capture and transmitter attachment procedures. Capture techniques should be designed to minimize stress to the animal at all times, and their selection should be based upon an understanding of the behavioural and physical characteristics of the species to be restrained, the field conditions under which the procedure will occur, the knowledge and skill of the persons handling the animals, the goals of the investigation, and the availability of appropriate equipment and facilities. Capture sessions should be timed to avoid disturbing animals during their most sensitive periods, such as when they are breeding or tending young. If chemical restraint is required, it should only be performed by trained personnel who have successfully completed the Ministry Chemical Immobilization Training Course. In addition to administering an immobilizing drug, personnel involved in chemical immobilization should be capable of monitoring the anaesthetized animal and providing appropriate support measures should an anaesthesia emergency occur. As well, any animal which is subjected to general anaesthesia should not be released or left unattended until it has fully recovered. Specific guidelines for collection and trapping, restraint and handling, and investigator impact, are outlined in manual No. 3, Live Animal Capture and Handling Guidelines for Wild Mammals, Birds, Amphibians and Reptiles. Researchers should be thoroughly familiar with the content of this manual before commencing any telemetry work.
Transmitters must be attached in a manner which will minimize any effects on the study animal. Researchers should take extreme care when fitting harnesses and collars to ensure that they allow freedom of movement so that an animal's movements are not hampered, but are not so loose-fitting as to increase the danger of entanglement. Additionally, they should exercise caution if using a new method of transmitter attachment and generally avoid any method which has been reported to cause adverse effects in the study species or similar species. Ideally, researchers should test attachment methods on captive animals before using them in the field. This also allows inexperienced researchers to become familiar with animal handling and transmitter attachment under controllable conditions. Zoos, game farms, falconers and wildlife rehabilitators are possible sources of captive animals on which to test transmitter attachments. (Note that permission should be obtained from the appropriate government agency before testing transmitters on releasable rehabilitation animals). More specifics of transmitter attachment are presented later in this manual.
Public perceptions should also be considered during design of a telemetry study, as, in some cases, members of the public may be more sensitive to marking methods and radio-tags than the animals themselves. In some areas, such as parks, people may be disturbed by the sight of wildlife with fluorescent collars and ear-tags. Small ear tag transmitters may be more suitable for this type of location. As a minimum requirement, drop-off collars/ harnesses are to be used if possible so that tag attachment is not permanent. Implanted transmitters with external antennas may also cause adverse public reactions. Researchers should make every effort to educate and reassure the public regarding the effects and benefits of telemetry equipment on wildlife.
Finally, it cannot be overstated that although this manual provides useful guidance for the use of radio-telemetry, it is by no means a replacement for appropriate training and practical experience.
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Both the federal and provincial governments have responsibilities for wildlife in British Columbia. It is useful to have an understanding of the jurisdictions of these different agencies to appreciate the licensing requirements for telemetry projects of different species.
The Department of Fisheries and Oceans is responsible for all marine mammals in British Columbia. These will not be covered in this manual.
The B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks has sole jurisdiction over all reptiles, amphibians, and terrestrial mammals in the province. The Ministry issues sundry permits to biologists who will be capturing, handling and/or collecting wildlife in the province.
The Ministry also protects the province's birds, and has sole jurisdiction for a portion of these, including all raptorial birds, cormorants and pelicans, upland game birds, kingfishers, corvids, blackbirds, grackles and cowbirds. The Ministry is responsible for issuing sundry permits for activities involving these bird groups.
Environment Canada has superseding authority over the remaining portion of the province's bird fauna: those birds which are listed in the Migratory Bird Convention Act (including most migratory songbirds, woodpeckers, waterfowl, shorebirds, and seabirds). Provincial sundry permits are not required to work with these; however, it is a good idea to inform local BC Environment offices of your intended activities to avoid any confusion, particularly as regional offices tend to receive inquiries from the curious members of the public.
It is generally recommended that birds be banded at the same time as they are radio-tagged. All birds, other than upland gamebirds (for which the province issues separate bands), must be banded with a United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) band, dispensed through the Bird Banding Office of Environment Canada, in Hull, PQ. Any researchers attaching transmitters to birds banded with USFWS bands will need to meet with requirements for permitting set by the Bird Banding Office. These include letters of approval of an animal care committee and authorization of Industry Canada (see below).
A federal banding permit is required before any banding of birds is allowed. Permits may be obtained through the Canadian Wildlife Service in Delta or directly from the Bird Banding Office in Hull, PQ. Ministry of Environment biologists may obtain subpermits under the Ministry's master permit by contacting the provincial Bird Specialist, Wildlife Branch. Applicants should allow three months to process applications.
Generally speaking, all terrestrial wildlife radio-telemetry studies in the province should undergo both peer and veterinary review. Although it is the intention of the provincial government to establish its own Animal Care Committee review process, this may not be in place for several years. Formal Animal Care Committee reviews are currently limited to those provided by the province's universities. Where sufficient need is present, formal reviews may be arranged in advance for external researchers. In the majority of cases, where this review process is not available, proponents are strongly recommended to organize their own peer and veterinary review to the satisfaction of the permitting agencies.
In addition to animal handling permits, licensing is also required to operate a radio transmitter. Industry Canada (formerly Communications Canada) requires that each transmitter and receiver be licensed, and assigns the frequencies to be used (A. Thompson, Industry Canada, pers. comm.). This is necessary to avoid potential conflicts with air traffic and other frequencies. Industry Canada recommends that researchers receive confirmation of assigned frequencies before ordering transmitters. As well, any equipment not manufactured in Canada must be certified for approval by the Department of Communications.
In cases where the province is funding the project and is consequently purchasing the equipment, the radio-transmitters should be included under the provincial government licensing agreement with Industry Canada and thus the project may not require its own individual license. To ensure this, researchers must contact:
Telecommunications, Central Services Section, Corporate Services Division, Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks
Applicants for inclusion under the provincial license will be required to provide details of the number of transmitters, supplier, model number, power, range, antenna type, location of any non-mobile receiving stations, and the geographic area of operation. They are also strongly urged to check with other radio-tracking projects in the study area in order to avoid duplication of frequencies. In some cases, it is also recommended to enquire about local frequencies to see if they are commonly used by paging companies or other annoying sources of interference.
For projects which require a separate radio license, application should be made to the closest district office of Industry Canada (Appendix 1). Applicants must provide the same information as they would for the province. Licenses are valid for one year, and a fee is charged for each license.
Researchers who wish to build there own transmitters rather than purchasing commercial ones will likely be subject to additional licensing requirements. Transmitters must be certified to operate in Canada and this will likely require extensive testing by an Industry Canada laboratory. Before development of custom transmitters begins, researchers should contact Industry Canada for details.
Regulatory requirements for all terrestrial species are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Regulatory requirements for radio-tagging a wild animal in British Columbia.
MELP=Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks; BBO=Bird Banding Office, Environment Canada.
|
Species |
Regulatory requirements |
|
Terrestrial mammals, reptiles, and amphibians |
|
|
Raptors, cormorants, pelicans, corvids, upland gamebirds, cowbirds, grackles, blackbirds, kingfisher |
|
|
Migratory birds as listed under Migratory Bird Convention Act |
|
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HTML Created: August 98
Copyright © 1998 Province of British Columbia
Published by the Resources Inventory Committee