Ungulate

3.1 General Considerations for Inventory

3.1.1 Inventory objectives

The most important step in a the inventory process is to define the objectives clearly and precisely in order to determine the staff, level of effort, and budget required. To meet the desired objectives, adequate resources must be available. While a multitude of survey objectives are possible, they may be generalized as objectives to estimate population distribution (presence/not detected (possible)), relative or absolute abundance, or herd composition.

Because habitat affinities and optimal survey times vary between species, it is rarely advisable to attempt to survey more than one ungulate species at a time. Therefore, to obtain valid results, sufficient funds should be allocated to inventory different species and their particular habitats separately. Exceptions are presence/not detected (possible) surveys (also called reconnaissance or distribution surveys), where more than one species may be inventoried simultaneously.

In some cases, it may be possible to plan contingency surveys if the primary objective is unattainable due to unexpected problems with logistics, weather, or animal behaviour. In any case, surveys should not be conducted under unsuitable conditions. Heroic perseverance in poor weather puts lives, and the quality of data being gathered, at risk.

3.1.2 Selecting the survey area

Once survey objectives have been established the next step in inventory is to define the area to be surveyed.

Presence/not detected (possible) surveys (also called reconnaissance or distribution surveys), are usually area-based. A reconnaissance survey might cover one or more administrative management units, one or more watersheds, the area described by one or more Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grids, or a relatively small study area defined by a proposed industrial development. In the latter case, where an impact assessment is the primary objective, the survey area should be large enough so that the proposed development can be assessed in perspective. For example, the presence of animals in a valley slated for development may be more meaningful if it is known that there are, or are not, animals in adjacent valleys.

The boundaries for abundance and composition surveys are often arbitrary, directed to areas as large as management units, regions or ecoprovinces, or as small as some specified portion of winter ranges (e.g., a portion involving a habitat enhancement project). In such cases, the composition data may serve as an indicator or index of local population performance.

The ideal survey boundary, however, is one that encloses a natural population, or discrete, contiguous group, so that changes in numbers can be distinguished from changes in distribution. In most areas, sub-populations which are discrete during the period of the survey can be defined. Caughley (1977:5) provides an illustration of the effect of imposing various size study areas on a hypothetical population. Potential for animal movement across study area boundaries is reduced as the size of the area is increased.

For population surveys referable to particular management areas or parks, it is important to consider the boundaries of the natural population first. Inventories based on administrative boundaries usually risk missing an important part of the population and therefore may seriously bias the results. This is because the resulting population estimates could vary considerably from survey to survey, simply as a result of animals moving in and out of the area. Management unit boundaries have been used for surveys to relate inventory data to harvest data. However, for reasons stated above, management unit boundaries are usually unsuitable for defining survey area boundaries. If a survey boundary falls out of one's area of jurisdiction, it may be possible to call on other agencies or interests to assist in funding the inventory.

Defining population boundaries requires knowledge of the target animal's annual and seasonal ranges, as well as physical limiting factors such as snow depth, elevation, terrain, or habitat type. The distribution of many ungulates is most restricted in winter, and the entire population may be enclosed within a small survey area. Major physiographic barriers such as large lakes, rivers, or rugged mountain ranges can usually be used as boundaries for populations.

There are a variety of potential sources of information to help determine the annual or seasonal distribution of a population intended for study. Review the results of any prior research or inventory of an area, particularly if radio-tracking or visual marking was involved. Talk to the people who conducted the studies. Local naturalists, trappers, guides or hunters may also be able to provide useful information.

Mark the limits of distribution, and areas of concentration, of the target population on topographic maps, preferably at a scale of 1:250,000. Where available, 1:100,000 or 1:50,000 scale maps can provide more detail. Biophysical maps and 1:250,000 Canada Land Inventory ungulate maps may provide useful information about distribution patterns. For poorly known populations, it may be possible to predict areas of concentration based on topography, vegetation, and normal snow depths. Features such as elevation, slope, and aspect, may also be used to help define the probable limits of population distribution.

Provincial Ministry of Forestry and Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks offices may have local vegetation or habitat maps available, and information on populations.

Ultimately, survey boundaries should reflect objectives, animal distribution, and available budget. After existing information is assessed, reconnaissance flights over the survey area should be thorough enough to confirm what is known or suspected, and to fill in significant gaps in the needed preliminary information.

3.1.3 Sample units

It is almost always advisable to subdivide a survey area into sampling units (e.g., blocks, quadrats, transects), preferably with boundaries that are clearly recognizable from the air. For small blocks, visible boundaries such as roads, lakes, creeks, rivers, clearings and other topographic features may be used. Preferably, however, sample units should be bounded by natural features such as rivers, steep ridges or highways that would minimize short term movements of animals between units. Selecting boundaries where animals rarely occur will minimize decisions regarding whether animals are inside or outside a sample unit. Vegetation edges should not be used since animals frequently cross between openings and adjacent cover.

For reconnaissance and composition surveys, the sampling unit approach facilitates descriptions and comparisons of animal distribution within or between surveys, and for portions of the study area. Search times for each sampling unit can be estimated to enable preplanning of the use of aircraft time and logistics. Breaks between unit searches provide convenient refueling and rest stops.

For abundance surveys involving sampling, sample units are an essential part of the survey design. Blocks are defined by topographic features and vary in size and shape while quadrats are equal in size and shape. Quadrats should only be considered for use in level homogenous terrain with GPS or LORAN-C navigation equipment, to ensure accurate boundary identification (see section 3.1.8). Surveys of blocks based on recognizable topographic features may also incorporate use of navigation equipment. Blocks are recommended for sampling units in the rugged terrain most common in British Columbia. Some knowledge of the target species spatial pattern is useful for determining the appropriate sample unit size and survey methods.

A number of factors will determine appropriate sampling unit size. The extent of daily and weekly movements of animals is an important consideration. If units are too small, animals will readily move between them, and double or under-counting may occur. If units are too large, observer fatigue will affect accuracy. Usually, the search time for a sample unit should be about one hour. Because search intensity may range from 1 to 5 min/km 2, sample units should be from 10 to 30 km 2. The number of animals encountered, and the extent of vegetation cover, increases the search time for a given area. Large units (30 km 2) can be used in open terrain but smaller units (10 km 2) are better where cover requires more intensive searches and/or animal densities are higher. A major drawback of small sampling units for low density populations is the possibility of zero counts, which violate some of the statistical assumptions of the data analysis.

3.1.4 Stratification

The precision of a population estimate can be improved by careful stratification of sampling units before the survey. This involves stratifying the units into categories of expected animal numbers or density, based on interpretation of existing information. This may include personal knowledge of the area, results of a reconnaissance survey, or results of previous stratified surveys.

The quality of stratified random block surveys depends on the accuracy of stratification. Initial guesses are dependent on the experience of the biologist in judging animal numbers based on all available information. Those guesses are refined with a reconnaissance (pre-stratification) survey where each unit is viewed and judged on the basis of animals or tracks seen, and on physical characteristics such as terrain, snow depth, and vegetation (Gasaway et al. 1986; Unsworth et al. 1994). The accuracy of the preliminary stratification will be confirmed, or refuted, when the sample units are surveyed.

Reconnaissance surveys to define strata should be done shortly before intensive surveys of the sampling units, because strata designations may change quickly with weather conditions or animal movements. Reconnaissance flights are usually done effectively using fixed-wing aircraft. When stratifying blocks, fly one pass over each block to count animals and assess track abundance. The expected numbers of animals per sample unit in each stratum will vary with study areas and size of sampling units.

Stratified surveys can save time and money compared with unstratified surveys. A well stratified survey imparts greater confidence in the estimates for sample blocks which are not counted. When done well, fewer sample units can be surveyed in shorter time and at lower cost than an unstratified survey with the same or better precision. Section 3.6.2 discusses optimal allocation of sampling effort within strata for high precision. Refer to Gasaway et al. (1986:12-13) for further details on stratification.

3.1.5 Survey timing

Survey timing will be constrained by overall objectives. For instance, to provide data on ungulate occurrence in early summer for a particular ridge slated for development, surveys are required in early summer. Likewise, a requirement for data on caribou calving and early survival can only be satisfied by conducting a survey shortly after calving. However, for objectives related to measuring population size and structure, the appropriate time is often in winter when ungulates are most easily sighted, restricted in distribution, and sex-age composition most accurately represented. Summer surveys are appropriate for white animals (e.g., mountain goats and Dall's sheep) which are difficult to see against snow. Spring surveys may be more appropriate for deer.

Selection of the best time for a survey is based on predictable seasonal patterns of distribution and behaviour, which can be modified by varying local or climatic conditions. Table 2 summarizes the optimal times for surveys to estimate composition or population size for each species and biogeoclimatic zone in British Columbia. The suggested timing for each species in portions of the province is discussed more fully in Section 4.

Within the optimum time frame for a survey, it is important to maintain some flexibility in scheduling, to have staff and funds available, and be ready to move when weather is favourable. A survey pre-scheduled into a narrow time slot, to accommodate personal schedules, risks being adversely affected by weather or other unpredictable factors.

2 TC=total count, SB=stratified random block, ET=encounter transect, FT=fixed-width transect, HS=‘hot spots’ or searches in concentration areas.

3.1.6 Personnel

An experienced professional biologist should undertake the design, logistic planning, and data analysis for inventories. When necessary, specialists or persons with additional experience, should be consulted to save time, money, and frustration. Prior to initiating major inventory surveys, a short workshop with inventory experts present, may be useful to update inexperienced personnel on survey procedures and requirements. Standardizing as many controllable factors as possible must be emphasized to make the surveys repeatable in the future.

The number of observers used in an aircraft will be dictated by window space, aircraft safety, and the availability of competent personnel. Aerial surveys require at least three, and preferably four, experienced observers per aircraft, including the pilot. The person sitting beside the pilot is responsible for navigation, identification of survey unit boundaries, placing animal locations (group numbers) on a map, spotting and classifying. The observer behind the navigator should spot and record classification and group size data opposite the group number. The observer behind the pilot spots and classifies only.

When choosing the number of observers for a survey, aircraft performance and safety are factors in the decision. Hovering required to classify animals is more difficult and, in turbulent mountain flying conditions, safety margins are reduced. For high elevation surveys in rugged terrain where animals are highly visible, a fourth observer may be more of a liability rather than an asset. If a fourth observer is deemed to be necessary, an alternative is to use a more powerful aircraft.

To the extent possible, survey personnel should have experience and demonstrated ability with the methods involved and with the target species. Two qualified observers should be on flights where a trainee is included. Although experienced pilots may cover their side of the aircraft, it is recommended that the trainee sit behind an experienced observer. The pilot's primary responsibility is to fly safely and follow the navigator's directions, but may assist in spotting as well.

Surveying from an aircraft may cause nausea, particularly if search patterns are circular, or if the air is turbulent. Nausea makes it difficult to concentrate, to effectively sight animals and to record data. It may also put observers to sleep. The use of Gravol, accupressure straps, or other remedies is recommended for observers prone to motion sickness. Some observers report that Gravol does not affect their spotting ability, while others find it causes disorientation and drowsiness. Thus, it is preferable to have a navigator who is familiar with the area and does not suffer motion sickness.

3.1.7 Pilots and aircraft

Aerial surveys require low level flying, often in rugged terrain where margins for error are small. Some survey methods are safer than others. Straight and level transect surveys are much safer than quadrat or block counts, where circling and low speed turns are frequent. The two primary attributes of good survey pilots are interest and experience. Clearly, a pilot with an interest in wildlife will invest more in the job at hand. Experience includes general flying experience, preferably in the survey region or ecoprovince, and wildlife survey experience. Pilots should have 1000 hours of general flying experience. Pilots should also be available for the full survey period. Grigg (1979) provides a useful summary of safety considerations for aerial survey flying.

Pilots must be competent, cautious, and able to recognize and avoid potential hazards such as wind shear and down draughts on mountain ridges. Aircraft may stall when flying downwind at slow speeds, and there is little opportunity to recover when 30 m above the trees. Pilots should advise the navigator when something requested is risky. Skilled pilots, who smoothly coordinate bank and turn rates, may also reduce the chances of motion sickness.

Pilots experienced and skilled in spotting and herding animals are a great asset. Aerial manoeuvres required to hold or move animals, so they are seen to best advantage by expert observers, requires some anticipation by the pilot to be most effective. Pilots with those skills should be sought for aerial survey work. Many pilots must be reminded to position aircraft so that the observers, not the pilot, have the best view.

There are several considerations when choosing and using aircraft. Fixed-wing aircraft should be high wing monoplanes. Consider the size and power of the aircraft for the load requirements. What are the cruising and stall speeds? How will it perform on the airstrips that are available, and will those airstrips be functional if it rains or snows? What is the cost per hour? What type of fuel is required and where is it available? Will you need to place drum fuel at refueling sites, and if so do you need a pump and filter? Also consider if you will require private airstrips as refueling points.

The specifications and performance data for some aircraft available in British Columbia are summarized in Table 3. Some additional points are worth noting.

Bell Jet Ranger helicopters are widely available. They offer good viewing from forward and rear seats, particularly when rear bubble windows are installed. They can carry up to four passengers plus the pilot. As with all aircraft, remember that hovering or slow flight requires more fuel per hour than cruising. With full fuel tanks the lifting capacity is about 1000 lbs, the equivalent of five people.

Hughes 500 helicopters are not as commonly available as Jet Rangers. They are more maneuverable and safer than Jet Rangers, due to their shorter 4-blade rotors, and they tend to disturb animals less. Fuel capacities, passenger space, and charter costs are similar to Jet Rangers. They are useful for capture and marking, but less effective for aerial surveys due to viewing constraints.

The Hiller 12E helicopter is a turbo charged piston driven machine which carries a passenger on either side of the pilot. They offer excellent visibility since the entire front and sides of the machine are a transparent bubble. They are less maneuverable than the Bell or Hughes. While extensively used in the United States, they are relatively rare in British Columbia. They are also more tiring to fly in, due to noise and vibration.

The Bell 47 G, not shown on Table 3, is also piston driven, and may or may not be turbo charged. Without turbo chargers, they are not powerful enough for aerial surveys. They seat two passengers to the left of the pilot and offer excellent visibility through a bubble front. Their fuel capacity of 45 gallons allows 2.5 hours flying. Their lifting capacity is about 1200 lbs. The cruising speed is 80 mph.

The Jet Ranger is usually the helicopter of choice because of availability, comfort, and visibility. Such turbine driven machines have better safety records than piston driven helicopters. Turbines are more reliable and their extra power can be used to pull out of unexpected dangerous situations. However, piston driven helicopters cost much less, and for extensive surveys in appropriate terrain, the use of cheaper machines can greatly increase survey coverage.

The Cessna 172 is a high wing, four passenger aircraft, commonly available in British Columbia. Visibility is good from the side windows but not over the front. Minimum air speeds down to 60 mph are possible. Slow flight capability allows great maneuverability which is particularly important for flying in narrow mountain valleys and for telemetry work.

Cessna 180, 182, 185, and 206 are larger than the 172, and have greater power and range. Some have retractable landing gear. Their stalling speed is about 80 mph, so turning in narrow valleys requires steeper banking, and exerts more G forces than in the 172. That characteristic may substantially increase the chance of motion sickness, particularly for rear seat passengers.

The Supercub holds the pilot and one observer in tandem. They are often used in Alaska and the Yukon. The PA-12 is roomier and holds 2 observers. Both have 150 HP engines unless modified, and they use 6 to 7 gallons of fuel per hour. They may run on regular automobile, as well as aviation gasoline. They have low stalling speeds, short take-off, high maneuverability, good visibility, and are economical. They are especially good for reconnaissance surveys and surveys over difficult terrain. Few are available commercially in British Columbia, but many are privately owned.

The Heliocourier, not shown on Table 3, is comparable to a small Cessna in carrying capacity. It is considered an excellent short take off and landing aircraft. Popular in Alaska and the Yukon, it is rarely available commercially in British Columbia.

As noted previously, fixed-wing aircrafts are most suitable for reconnaissance-type surveys. They are commonly used for pre-stratified surveys.

Table 3. Specifications and performance data for recommended aerial survey aircraft in B.C.

Type of Aircraft Payload(3) (lb) Fuel (imp g) Cruise Speed (mph) Range (hrs/tank) Stall Speed (mph) Cost ($/hr) (1993 $)

Fixed-wing

Cessna 172 581 51 138 4 58 135

Cessna 180 852 73 164 4 62 180

Cessna 182 827 73 180 5 62 180

Cessna 185 1,158 70 169 3 64 200

Cessna 206 1,142 73 169 3 71 225

Maule (Supercub) 522 52 154 3 62 n/a

Beaver 1,500 79 100 4 60 380

Single Otter 2,400 200 130 4 55 656

Twin Otter 2,502 358 155 3 74 1154

Helicopter

Hiller 12E4 748 72 70 2 n/a 350

Bell JetRanger(3) 985 74 132 3 n/a 700

Bell LongRanger(3) 1,095 89 129 2 n/a 875

Hughes 500D 960 52 164 2 n/a 700

3.1.8 Navigation and use of GPS equipment

The forward observer or navigator is responsible for directing the pilot, and defining search area boundaries for the other observers. The navigator records the flight lines, group locations, and keeps the pilot and observers apprised of the intended search pattern. Accurate in-flight mapping of flight lines and observations is required to insure that all habitat is covered, while avoiding overlapping coverage and double-counts of animals.

Use of electronic navigation equipment, if available, can greatly reduce the time and attention required to accurately map flight lines and animal locations. Flight time can be decreased up to 24% using LORAN-C (Long Range Navigation), rather than conventional navigation with map references (Boer et al. 1989). Information on group size, classification, and habitat must still be recorded separately.

Two radio signal navigation systems are available in British Columbia. LORAN-C has ground based transmitters and provides coverage south of Highway 16 in British Columbia. GPS (Global Positioning System) is satellite based and provides coverage worldwide. All 21 satellites have been operational as of December 1993. Both systems operate by measuring the time that pulsed radio signals transmitted from known locations take to reach your receiving unit. Some aircraft-based GPS systems also detect and use LORAN-C signals to enhance their accuracy.

GPS systems were designed for installation in aircraft, but portable units for ground based surveys are also available. Portable units do not have LORAN-C capability. All systems provide standard navigation functions including continuous position monitoring; recognition of departure, destination or other waypoints using latitude/longitude or UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinates; and course correction, ground speed and time/distance to destination. Depending on memory capacity, aircraft positions (flight-lines) can be continuously recorded and numbered waypoints (animal locations) can be entered by pushing a button as you pass over them. Information recorded can then be down-loaded to a personal computer using the serial port for use with GIS or other software systems.

Navigation computers which interface with GPS units are also available, and can be used to define search areas, and lay out grid lines. The on-board computer and display allows continuous tracking of aircraft position relative to predetermined grid lines, and recording of survey information in ASCII files on 3.5" disks.

Standard GPS receivers have the capability of recording locations to within 15 m. However, the American military, which owns the satellite system, has intentionally degraded the accuracy to 100 m (328 ft) for security reasons. Where LORAN-C is available, 15 m (49 ft) accuracy can be attained, but its accuracy can be affected by mountainous topography and radio signal noise. The accuracy of navigation systems should be verified by comparing fixes with known locations in each survey area prior to beginning the survey. Additional accuracy can be obtained by using data collected at Community Base Stations to differentially correct data obtained from any receiver operated in the field within a 500 km (310 mi) radius of the base station. In 1993, Northern Forest Management operated two GPS Pathfinder Community Base Stations, in Kelowna and Prince George, and their corrective data was available for a user fee of $14.00 for each 1 hour time period file. Twenty-four files are created and stored each day at the base station, and can be accessed by modem. With PFINDER differential correction software, accuracy to 15 m (49 ft) can be assured, and accuracy within 2 to 5 m (6.5 to 16.5 ft) is expected.

If transects are flown without a GPS system, pilots must fly along a predetermined line and adjust for wind strength and direction. That is done by orienting via landmarks, and following compass courses. At low altitudes, drift can be detected and adjusted for. If a pilot gets off course, the best thing to do is interrupt the transect, climb to establish some points of reference, reestablish your location, and then resume the transect. If you are far off course, fly the transect again.

Fixed-width transects require maintaining a constant height above the ground. Radar altimeters are expensive, but give a constant and direct read-out of height above terrain. With experience, a subjective sense of correct height can be gained by learning the size that certain objects appear at the desired height. That will reduce the need to constantly watch the altimeter. Mammals may be a useful reference, but trees are not.

Navigation systems have great potential for application to aerial or ground survey techniques. Use of a navigation computer will allow consistent coverage of search areas with little chance of missing areas or double coverage. The end points of transect lines, block boundaries, and animal locations can be more accurately recorded. The navigator is also free to spend more time searching for and classifying animals. The applicability of such systems should be assessed using controlled field tests in British Columbia. An affordable system should be a standard piece of equipment in aerial inventory work.

A large number of aircraft based GPS receivers are available. LORAN-C only receivers should not be considered for purchase since the system does not cover the whole province. However, many GPS receivers also have LORAN-C capability. Portable ground based units are less expensive than aeronautical equipment, but their antennae systems are not approved for external mounting on aircraft. A ground based GPS unit with an approved aircraft antennae system would provide the best value portable system.

3.1.9 Equipment

The following equipment is recommended for aerial surveys in B.C. It is a modified list from Grigg (1979) and Gasaway et al. (1986). For large population estimation surveys involving several aircraft, Gasaway et al. (1986) recommended a minimum quantity (in parentheses). Smaller and less intensive surveys will require less, and may not need all the items listed.

- Topographic maps (7 sets of 1:50:000 scale (or suitable alternative), and 4 sets of 1:250,000).

- Coloured pencils

- Grease pencils (3 colours, 3 each)

- Large eraser (4)

- Large scissors (3 pairs)

- Large felt-tip markers (2)

- Transparent coloured markers (3)

- Clear tape (8 rolls)

- Masking tape (1 roll)

- Heavy gauge acetate, at least 100 cm (40") wide (enough to cover 1:63,360 map (or equivalent) of entire survey area)

- Expandable file folders for map storage and data sheets (6)

Inflight equipment

- Clipboards

- Survey data sheets

- Number 2 lead pencils (bring extras)

- Intercom and headsets

- Spare batteries for intercoms

- Polar compensating planimeter (1)

- Tracing paper to be used with planimeter

- Pad of writing paper

- 3-ring notebook to store all forms, calculations and notes

- Survey forms (see Section 3.1.10)

- Binoculars

Personal gear

- Warm clothing (including hat and gloves)

- Sunglasses (amber tint for overcast days)

- Dark outer layer to minimize reflection on windows

- Watch

- Ear plugs

- Air-sickness pills and bags

Other equipment

- Camera and film

- Tissues

- Window-cleaning bottle and rag

- Tie-down pegs and ropes

- Foam pads to sit on in plane

Survival gear

- First Aid kit (should include 3 elastic bandages, 3 triangular bandages, aspirin, clove-oil, antiseptic, various small bandages, sport tape)

- Thermal reflective blankets or sleeping bags

- Bivouac sack(s)

- Matches (in water-proof container)

- Knife

- Small hatchet

- Wire saw

- 10 m 1/4" rope or nylon cord

- Tarp

- Flare gun

- Water

- Food rations

3.1.10 Survey forms and data recording

Standardized forms are necessary to ensure that data are not omitted, and that between-survey results, perhaps with different observers, can be compared. Maps must also be used for locating sample unit boundaries, and if navigation systems are not available, for navigation and recording sightings. Using large maps in a confined cockpit can be awkward. Maps of the survey sample units can be copied, cut, pasted onto stiff backing, then laminated to make observation and note-taking more convenient. Maps and air-photos can be filed in a ring binder for easy access.

The navigation equipment recommended in Section 3.1.8 is highly reliable. Navigation computers provide a continual display of the information recorded so that data collection can be verified as the survey proceeds. Data recording on paper is recommended, although tape recorders may be used to allow continuous recording of data without looking away from the search area. Tape recorders may also reduce the possibility of motion sickness which can be brought on by writing. However, tape recorders can fail for mechanical or electrical reasons, and usually without letting you know. If you decide to use tape recorders:

- become intimately familiar with the machine and its controls (particularly "record" and "pause");

- test batteries before the survey and daily thereafter;

- replace batteries if in any doubt about whether they will last;

- test the machine if it is bumped or dropped;

- use two tape recorders simultaneously to reduce the risk of losing data; and

- transcribe the notes daily.

For all surveys the date, start/stop times, personnel, weather, aircraft and survey type must be recorded. Observations of animals (or their sign) should be recorded by consecutive group number. Animal groups may range from a single animal to many animals associated together. The navigator records the flight line and each observation as a group number on a topographic map or with GPS. Navigation equipment may be essential to accurately record irregular flight lines. The mapping symbology for ungulate capability classification (Demarchi et al. 1983:41) is recommended. Accurate mapping allows each observation to be referenced to elevation, aspect and slope. Where observations are being recorded on paper, a second observer (usually the observer located behind the pilot) records the number, sex and age classification and behaviour of the group beside the group number on the appropriate survey form. Collecting additional descriptive information is optional. However, for absolute abundance surveys, collecting information such as per cent vegetation cover, per cent snow cover, activity and habitat type is recommended, since these are important factors used in sightability correction models (see Section 3.6.3). A standard list of habitat types (broad ecosystem units) for use in B.C. is provided in Appendix of the Introduction to RIC Wildlife Inventory manual.

3.1.11 Logistics and safety

In most cases, the budget allotted to a survey will determine the level of effort and area covered. It is important to allocate funds to planning, analysis, and reporting, as well as to carrying out the survey. Aircraft charter usually accounts for most of the budget required for surveys. Planning, and analysis of current information and past surveys, can greatly improve the quality of survey results for little additional cost. As noted elsewhere, accurate stratification is a key component for all surveys, and can substantially reduce the flying time required to reach acceptable levels of precision.

In order to plan a survey, the area and expected number of sample units (SU) should be defined or estimated. Also incorporate costs for stratification surveys to confirm population boundaries and strata. This may include an overflight with a fixed-wing aircraft to define population boundaries, and a stratification flight of each sample unit using either fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter depending on the density of cover, and the expected difficulty in sighting animals or their tracks. Initially plan to survey at least five sample units in each stratum. As a general guideline, 20 sample units in open habitat should incorporate 600 km 2 (30 km 2/SU), and in dense habitat, 200 km 2 (10 km 2/SU). Employ optimal allocation procedures for further sampling (see Section 3.6.2). Generally, optimal allocation results in greatest sampling effort in the high strata (e.g., 90%), less in the moderate strata (e.g., 50%), and least in the low strata (e.g., 30%), in terms of the proportion of SU's surveyed.

High density sample units normally require more time to survey because of the time required to count and classify animals. The average time for all sample units should be about one hour, so the total time required, and approximate cost can be estimated once the number of sample units is defined (e.g., 20 blocks @ 1 hr/block @ $700/hr = $14,000).

Ferry time between sample units, and for refueling must also be estimated, and should be < 10% of the flying budget. If fuel is not available within 10 to 20 minutes flying time of a survey area, consider slinging drums in with the helicopter or having some delivered by a pick-up truck, a Beaver aircraft (five 45 gallon drums), or an Otter aircraft (10 drums). Jet Rangers require about 25 gallons per hour, so 1 drum equals about 2 hours flying.

Ideally, the helicopter should be based in the survey area during the period of the survey. That requires arranging for meals and accommodation for the crew. Bases in the area allow you to start searches earlier and finish later each day, and also to interrupt surveys if weather is poor. That is most important where helicopter bases are far from the survey area, and the prospect of spending the night in a freezing helicopter may cause you to fly in dangerous conditions.

Survey aircraft should have a regular hourly radio check-in with a base station, a requirement with some government Ministries. If a check-in is missed, the base station should attempt to contact the aircraft. If the aircraft does not respond within one hour, the flight following service should initiate a search and rescue operation by calling 1-800-742-1313. Information on the last location of the aircraft, aircraft type and colours, crew members, and probable destination must be provided to search and rescue. It is advisable to provide the flight following service with a map showing the sample units being surveyed, and the expected dates that each will be flown. They can be updated during radio contacts.

Personnel should be briefed by the pilot on aircraft safety procedures. All personnel should be familiar with the location and operation of the emergency locator transmitter, and with the aircraft radio. Suitable seasonal clothing and survival gear must be carried in the aircraft.

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Published by the Resources Inventory Committee

Species	Biogeoclimatic Zone	Survey Objective(1)	Survey Method(2)	Survey Timing
Bison	SWB	P, A, C,	TC	Jan.-Mar.
Mountain Goat	All	P, C	TC	July
	MH, BWBS, SWB, AT	P, C	TC	Aug - Sep
	MS, ESSF, SBPS	P, C	TC	Sep - Oct
	CWH, ICH, IDF	P, C	TC	Oct - Nov
Mountain Sheep	BG, IDF, MS, PP	P, A, C	TC	Jan - Feb
	ESSF, BWBS, SWB, AT	P, A, C	TC	Jan - Feb
	BWBS, SWB, AT	C	TC	Nov - Dec
Moose	IDF, MS, SBPS	C	SB	Nov - Dec
	IDF, MS, SBPS	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Feb
	ICH	P, A, C	SB	Dec - Jan
	SBS, SWB	C	SB	Nov - Dec
	BWBS, SWB	C	ET	Nov - Dec
	SBS, BWBS	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Feb
	SBS, BWBS, SWB	P, A, C	FT	Jan - Feb
Elk	SWB, BWBS	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Mar
	IDF, MS, PP	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Mar
	ICH	P, C	TC	Jan - Mar
Mule Deer	BWBS	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Feb
	BG (localized areas)	P, A, C	SB	Apr - May
	PP, IDF (localized areas)	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Feb
Northern Caribou	ESSF, BWBS, SWB, AT	P, A, C	SB	Oct - Nov
	MS (Rainbow Mtn)	P, C	SB	Oct 1- 14
	ESSF, MS, AT (Rainbow Mtn)	P, A, C	SB	Jan - Mar
Mountain Caribou	MS, ESSF	P, A, C	TC	Feb - Apr

Type of Aircraft	Payload(3) (lb)	Fuel (imp g)	Cruise Speed (mph)	Range (hrs/tank)	Stall Speed (mph)	Cost ($/hr) (1993 $)
Fixed-wing
Cessna 172	581	51	138	4	58	135
Cessna 180	852	73	164	4	62	180
Cessna 182	827	73	180	5	62	180
Cessna 185	1,158	70	169	3	64	200
Cessna 206	1,142	73	169	3	71	225
Maule (Supercub)	522	52	154	3	62	n/a
Beaver	1,500	79	100	4	60	380
Single Otter	2,400	200	130	4	55	656
Twin Otter	2,502	358	155	3	74	1154
Helicopter
Hiller 12E4	748	72	70	2	n/a	350
Bell JetRanger(3)	985	74	132	3	n/a	700
Bell LongRanger(3)	1,095	89	129	2	n/a	875
Hughes 500D	960	52	164	2	n/a	700