Yellow Rails are small (18 cm, 52-59 g, smaller than a Sora) birds with short quail-like bills. They are generally buff-brown, but show distinctive white secondary wing patches when in flight. Plumage is similar for both sexes, but the male's bill turns corn yellow during breeding, while the female's remains an olive-black (Bookhout 1995). As well, males are generally larger than females. Yellow Rails are very secretive birds that are difficult to see or flush, even while standing directly overhead of calling males (Peterson 1990; Bookhout 1995).
The calling of the males during the breeding season is a very distinctive metallic sounding 5-note tic-tic, tic-tic-tic that sounds exactly like two stones being tapped together. This call is heard most frequently after complete darkness (Bookhout 1995), but has also been heard during the day. Other vocal sounds include "squeaks" from retreating birds, and "wheezing" from females (Bookhout 1995).
The Yellow Rail is mainly found east of the Rockies (Godfrey 1986), although there is an isolated population in Oregon (Stern et al. 1993). There have been no officially "confirmed" sightings of Yellow Rail in B.C. For this reason, it has been considered a hypothetical species in the province (Campbell et al. 1990b); however, it might better be considered an accidental visitor given the number of recent reported encounters (Cannings in The Vertebrates of British Columbia: Scientific and English Names, Standards for Components of BC's Biodiversity, No. 2. 1998). Apparent sightings or auditory identifications appear to be distributed throughout the province. One unconfirmed auditory record comes from Somenos Lake on Vancouver Island while two records exist from southeastern B.C., including an auditory record from Lake Lillian in the east Kootenay, and Corn Creek marsh near Lone Pine Hill (Creston). There are also two auditory records from northeastern B.C. One was reported on 10 June, 1989 on the west side of Boundary Lake east of Goodlow (Campbell et al. 1990b; Bookhout 1995), and two individuals were heard calling in a roadside ditch near Chetwynd, B.C. (M. Setterington, pers. comm., early June and early to mid-July 1997). There have also been confirmed sightings in Washington on the Skagit River and near Othello, WA (Campbell et al. 1990b).
Yellow Rail habitat typically includes fresh and brackish water wetlands, swampy meadows, grassy marshes, and occasionally wet cut-over hay fields (Godfrey 1986; Bookhout 1995). There appears to be a strong association with sedges (Carex spp.), although Yellow Rails are rarely associated with cattail (Typha spp.) (Bookhout 1995). Nest sites have been found in marshes varying in water depth from saturated soil through to shallow marshes with water depth <15 cm (Bookhout 1995). Nests are a 7-10 cm cup composed of fine sedges and grasses that are covered with a canopy of dead vegetation. Females move their broods to uncovered brood nests one to two days after hatching (Bookhout 1995).
Due to its accidental status, the Yellow Rail is not included on the Red, Blue or Yellow list in B.C.
There is no information on Yellow Rail migration for B.C. Arrival dates in other regions range from the last week of April to the first week of May in Michigan and Minnesota, and range from 8 to 29 May in Quebec (Bookhout 1995). Males stopped calling on 15 August in a study in Michigan (Bookhout and Stenzel 1987). Departure dates typically extend from September to late October (Bookhout 1995). Yellow Rails are most often encountered in wet prairie or grassland during migration (Eddleman et al. 1988). Winter habitats include moist coastal grasslands and marshes (Eddleman et al. 1988). It is unlikely that Yellow Rail winter in B.C.
Male Yellow Rails were attracted at night (2200-0400) by striking two small stones together to imitate the territorial call of the male (Bookhout and Stenzel 1987). Responses have been elicited from Yellow Rail by both call playback and striking stones (Stern et al. 1993), however it is unknown if response rates differ between the two methods. It is difficult to estimate the distance from the observer to a calling Yellow Rail because the birds often turn while calling, thus changing the apparent volume of their calls (Bart et al. 1984). One observer can cover a 1.6 km long and 0.4 km wide fixed-width transect in one hour in Michigan wetlands when surveys are conducted at night between approximately 2300 to 0430 (Bart et al. 1984). However, due to difficulties, including hearing and detecting individual Yellow Rails, Bart et al. (1984) decided that line transect data were unsuitable as an index for population monitoring. Four surveys were required to detect most of the calling birds. In another study, a pointing dog was used to locate female and male rails that did not respond to call playback. Birds were then captured with hand nets (Bookhout and Stenzel 1987).
Virginia Rails are small (23 cm, 55-124 g) rusty birds with a long, slightly decurved reddish bill and reddish legs. They have short upturned tails and banded black and white flanks (Conway and Eddleman 1994; Conway 1995). It is the only British Columbian rail with a long, slender bill (Peterson 1990). When walking, they often flick their short tails and expose white undertail coverts (Sauer et al. 1997). While males are generally larger than females, there is no reliable technique for distinguishing males from females in the field.
There are four predominant calls of the Virginia Rail (Conway 1995). The most common is referred to as grunts which are heard as duets between males and females. Tick-it calls are heard briefly in the spring, and are probably given by males only. Kicker calls may be given prior to breeding calls, and the species also gives a sharp kiu call. Peterson (1990) refers to a wak-wak-wak call while Scott (1983) describes a series of kid kid kidick kidick phrases as being distinctive of Virginia Rail (one Spanish name for this rail is Kidika (Conway 1995)). Vocalizations occur most frequently in the two to three hour period around dawn and dusk, and occasionally through the night (Conway 1995). The peak calling season is from the second to fourth weeks in April in southern parts of the Virginia Rails breeding range, and the second to fourth week of May in the northern extent of their breeding range (Conway and Eddleman 1994).
Breeding Virginia Rails are rare to locally fairly common from southeastern Vancouver Island (Victoria to Comox), the Fraser Lowlands and the Okanagan valley and Creston valley, and locally near 100 Mile House, Williams Lake and Kleena Kleene (Campbell et al. 1990b). They have been found breeding in suitable habitat from near sea level to 915 m ASL (Campbell et al. 1990b). Winter distribution in B.C. includes southern Vancouver Island from Victoria to Campbell River on the east coast, and Victoria to Halfway River on the west coast, Fraser Lowlands, and the Okanagan valley (Campbell et al. 1990b).
Virginia Rails are usually found in freshwater wetlands, but have also been found in salt marshes. They favour areas with warm spring air temperatures, and appear to have an affinity for the drier portions of marshes (relative to cooler areas used by Soras) (Conway 1995). Virginia Rails are found in stands of robust vegetation including cattails and bulrushes (Conway 1995). They have been frequently observed in areas with 5-15 cm deep water, and heard from areas with less than 5 cm water (described in Conway and Eddleman 1994). Nests are loosely woven baskets (~ 15 cm diametre) made of surrounding vegetation, usually concealed with an overhead canopy. Nests can be well above the water, or at the base of taller vegetation (Harrison 1978). Dates for clutches range from 6 April to 20 June, and broods from 3 May to 18 August (Campbell et al. 1990b). The peak of egg laying occurs in mid-May in Iowa (Johnson and Dinsmore 1986).
The Virginia Rail is on the 1997 Yellow list for B.C.
Spring movements of Virginia Rails occur late March to early May, and fall movements occur September through November in B.C. (Campbell et al. 1990b). As described above, Virginia Rails over-winter in southern B.C.
Response to call playback surveys from races of the Clapper Rail (Rallus longirostris - considered to be similar to Virginia Rail; Conway 1995), varied from some birds answering but not approaching the broadcast site, some approaching but not answering, and some both approaching and answering (Tomlinson and Todd 1973). Virginia Rails frequently responded to broadcast Clapper Rail calls in Arizona, especially during fall and winter (Tomlinson and Todd 1973). Tomlinson and Todd (1973) discuss the success of various Clapper Rail calls at various times of the year, but generally suggest that birds were most responsive during the breeding season. Virginia Rails will also respond to King Rail calls in Southern Ontario (R. Weeber, Bird Studies Canada). However, although Virginia Rails may be responsive to the calls of other species, it is best to perform surveys using conspecific calls.
Systematic searches for Virginia Rail nests in Colorado were generally unsuccessful, but nests were found when the rails were heard giving keep-like calls (Glahn 1974). A study in Iowa found that nighttime surveys (one to four hours after sunset) conducted in early June for Virginia Rail were just as successful as daytime surveys (from one hour before to three hours after sunrise) (Johnson and Dinsmore 1986). Foot surveys have been used for finding Sora and Virginia Rail nests in a shallow (less than 1 inch deep) 0.5 acre marsh in Michigan (Berger 1951).
The Sora is a medium-sized (20-25 cm, 72-88 g) rail with a stubby yellow bill, and black face mask and throat. The females has a duller and smaller black face patch, a mantle which is more spotted with white, colours which are less intense, a darker bill, and a smaller overall size (Dimmick and Pelton 1994). Soras are difficult to flush, but fly more readily than Virginia or Yellow Rails (Melvin and Gibbs 1996).
Among other vocalizations, Soras have a distinctive descending whinny described as whee-hee-hee-hee-hee-hee. The females make shorter calls that are more variable and at a higher frequency than those of the males. Peak for calling appears to occur in mid-May (Melvin and Gibbs 1996).
Soras are the most abundant and widely distributed North American rail (Melvin and Gibbs 1996), and often occur sympatrically with Virginia Rail (Melvin and Gibbs 1994). In B.C. they are fairly common along southeastern Vancouver Island, Fraser Lowlands, and in suitable habitat throughout the interior to the Peace River and other boreal areas (Campbell et al. 1990b).
Soras prefer freshwater and brackish wetlands with an interspersion of emergent vegetation and open water from near sea level to 1,220 m ASL (Campbell et al. 1990b). Nests are usually found in robust or fine-leaved vegetation within 18-22 cm of water, and are often placed at vegetation edges, near patches of open water, or in mixture of robust and fine vegetation (e.g., cattail with an understory of sedge) (Melvin and Gibbs 1994). Dominant plants around nest sites often include cattail and sedges, and, less commonly, bulrushes, burreeds, and grasses (Melvin and Gibbs 1994). Nests are composed of the surrounding vegetation woven together with some finer material, such as dry grasses, to form a cup. Similar to other rails, the surrounding vegetation is folded over to form a covering dome.
Sora is on the 1997 Yellow List for B.C.
Soras have a regular migration. Spring migration may begin as early as mid-March, but usually migrants will arrive in late-April and early May (Campbell et al. 1990b). Peak fall migration occurs in September and early October. Small numbers of Soras may sometimes winter in the lower Fraser River valley (Campbell et al. 1990b).
Soras will respond to call playback of conspecifics and Virginia Rail, as well as loud noises (Melvin and Gibbs 1996). Soras respond to call playback during the early part of the breeding season (late April to early June in most states), but respond less frequently in summer and fall (Melvin and Gibbs 1994). Soras frequently responded to Clapper Rail calls in Arizona, especially during fall and winter (Tomlinson and Todd 1973). Systematic searches for Sora nests in Colorado were generally unsuccessful, but nests were found more readily when Soras were heard giving keep-like calls (Glahn 1974). A study in Iowa found that nighttime surveys (one to four hours after sunset) conducted in early June for Sora were just as successful as daytime surveys (from one hour before to three hours after sunrise) (Johnson and Dinsmore 1986).
The American Coot is a rail that superficially looks like a medium-sized dark coloured duck with "chicken-like" legs and bill and a small head (Alisauskas and Arnold 1994). The Coot's plumage is slate gray but appears black from a distance, and its short, white bill extends up the forehead forming a frontal shield. Coots swim more than other rails, aided by their lobed toes which allow them to move like ducks through the water, constantly bobbing their heads (Baron and Acorn 1997). Due to the similar plumage and size overlap between the sexes, it is difficult to distinguish males and females in the field. Voice differentiation is the most reliable method of differentiation (Gullion 1950), but requires field experience with the species before it can be attempted with any degree of confidence.
American Coots are abundant and conspicuous in many wetland environments throughout B.C. They can be found in a variety of habitats including lakes, ponds, or marshes, and may be seen foraging on grass in parks and fields. Coots prefer fresh water but will frequent shallow saltwater environments. They will also defend small territories, sometimes against other marsh birds (Alisauskas and Arnold 1994).
The greatest densities of coot nests have been found in well-flooded, persistent emergent wetlands characterized by a mixture of emergent vegetation and open water (Alisauskas and Arnold 1994). The largest breeding colonies of American Coot in B.C. are found at Westwick Lake, Cecil Lake and Boundary Lake (Campbell et al. 1990b).
American Coot is on the 1997 Yellow List for B.C.
American Coots wintering on the coast begin their northward migration in early April to May while the migration of birds from the B.C. interior starts in March and peaks in April (Campbell et al. 1990b). Nesting usually begins 10-14 days after arriving on the breeding grounds (Alisauskas and Arnold 1994). Main movements for fall migration occur from mid-September to mid-October (Campbell et al. 1990b).
Brood size counts derived from visual surveys are not reliable because adult coots tend to split up broods and feed them in different areas of the territory. Therefore, both parents must be seen within a territory and counts made of the young with each of them (Gullion 1956). Ground counts are reputedly more effective than aerial counts, even though some ground surveys detect only half of known nesting populations and provide only an index of abundance (ref. in Alisauskas and Arnold 1994). Visual surveys in general appear to underestimate coot populations.
Sexes of most rails cannot be differentiated by plumage characteristics (Dimmick and Pelton 1994). Techniques for separating immature from adult rails have not been documented in commonly available field guides; however, complete plumage descriptions of the various age classes are provided in the accounts from Life Histories of North American Birds (Gibbs et al. 1992a; 1992b; Bookhout 1995; Conway 1995; Melvin and Gibbs 1996).
Sora and Virginia Rails may utter identical alarm calls at the nest (Robbins and Stallcup 1981). The calls of Black, Yellow and Virginia Rails may be difficult to separate (Robbins and Stallcup 1981).